The Variable

Trustworthy direct relapse, we anticipate scores on one variable from the rankings on a second variable. The variable we're looking ahead to is known as the rule of thumb variable and is alluded to as y. The variable we're constructing our assume with respect to is referred to as the indicator variable and is alluded to as x. At the factor while there is only a unmarried indicator variable, the discern method is referred to as fundamental relapse. In trustworthy direct relapse, the challenge of this vicinity, the expectations of y while plotted as a element of x frame a straight line.( hand, d.j. (1994weisberg illuminates that the trustworthy direct relapse display is spoken to this manner: Y = ?0 +?1 + ?, by means of numerical tradition, the 2 variable that are engaged with a fundamental direct relapse investigation are assign x and y. The condition that portrays how y is diagnosed with x is known as the relapse display. The direct relapse show moreover carries a mistake term this is spoken to by ?, or the greek letter epsilon. The blunder term is applied to symbolize the fluctuation in y that can't be clarified via the instantly connection amongst x and y .(sanford weisberbeg (2005) however weisberbeg moreover indicates that †there likewise parameters that talk to the population being computed. These parameters of the model which are spoken to through (?Zero+?1x). The trustworthy direct relapse circumstance is spoken to this manner: ?(y) = (?Zero +?1 x). The truthful direct relapse condition is charted as a instantly line. (?0 is the y catch of the relapse line. ?1 is the slant. E(y)is the mean or expected estimation of y for a given estimation of x.† (sanford weisberbeg (2005)scholotzhauer notices â€Å"That a relapse line can display a nice direct relationship, a terrible directly courting, or no relationship. On the off threat that the charted line in a primary directly relapse is degree (not willing), there may be no connection among the 2 factors. In the occasion that the relapse line inclines upward with the lower cease of the line on the y capture (pivot) of the chart, and the higher give up of line expanding upward into the diagram field, a ways from the x block (hub) a high-quality instantly dating exists. In the event that the relapse line slants descending with the top cease of the road on the y block (hub) of the chart, and the decrease end of line broadening descending into the diagram area, across the x capture (pivot) a bad direct dating exists †.(sandra d schlotzhaur 2009) employments of simple directly relapse but moore and mccabe said that basic directly relapse a solitary self sustaining variable is applied to compute the estimation of a needy variable. Once we've ?Tted a version, we can put it to use to make expectancies – e.g. To anticipate the gas usage same to an out of doors temperature of 6deg c, or the drop in fuel utilization equal to a 5deg c increment in temperature. Degree of progress in a needy variable that outcomes from changes inside the free factors may be applied to gauge elasticises, degrees of profitability in human capital.( moore, d.s. What's extra, mccabe, g.p. 2004).try and determine motives for wonders.prediction and determining of gives, financial development.guide or nullify speculative model.alter and enhance speculative models and clarifications of wonders.Significance's of simple linear regression show as per mendenhall and sincich basic direct relapse is large since it has been connected in severa natural, behavioral, ecological and sociologies. With its ability to make clear doable connections between recognized elements, it has helped the fields of the examine of disorder transmission, fund, mo netary factors and pattern line in analyzing noteworthy data that ends up being of quintessence inside the distinguished fields. All the more as a consequence, honest direct relapse is noteworthy due to the fact that it offers a concept of what requirements to unsurprising, in particular in controlling and coping with capacities required on some orders. (mendenhall, w., and sincich, t. 1992).the regression modelmr mcintyre clarified that simple linear regression presents a way to version a instantly line courting between variables. In conventional (or asymmetric) regression one variable y is called the reaction or structured variable, and the opposite x is known as the explanatory or independent variable. That is a difference to correlation wherein there is no distinction among y and x in phrases of that is an explanatory variable and which a reaction variable. The regression model is given by: Y = ?+ ? X + ? In which ? Is the y intercept (the cost of y wherein x = 0), ? Is the slope of the road, and ? Is a random errors term. It is able to also receive as: Y = ?Zero + ?1x + ? Wherein ?Zero is the y intercept, ?1 is the slope of the road, and ? Is a random errors term. (mcintyre, l. 1994). However mcintyre â€Å"The traditional regression version, values of x-variable are assumed to be fixed via the experimenter. The model is still legitimate if x is random (as is more commonly the case), however simplest if x is measured with out error. If there's sizeable measurement mistakes on x, and the values of the predicted parameters are of interest, then mistakes in variables regression have to be used. Errors on the reaction variable are assumed to be independent and identically and typically dispensed.the parameters of the regression model are envisioned from the data the usage of normal least squares. B= (cov(x,y))/(var(x))= (?(xy)-(?X)(?Y)/n )/(?X2 – (?X)2/n ) in which b is the estimate of the slope coefficient (? ), x and y are the man or woman observations, x ?And y ?Are the way of x and y, n is the wide variety of bivariate observations. A= y ?+x ?Bin which a is the estimate of the y intercept (? ) (the cost of y where x=zero). There are several approaches the significance of a regression can be examined. Offering errors are typically and identically disbursed, a parametric test can be used. Analysis of variance is often the favored method, even though one can also use a t-test to test whether the slope is substantially unique from zero. If errors are not commonly and identically allotted, then a randomization check need to be used. The usage of evaluation of variance (anova), the full sums of squares of the response variable (y) is partitioned into the variant explained through the regression and the unexplained error variant. The mistake sums of squares are obtained by means of subtracting the regression sums of squares from the entire sums of squares.sst = ?Y2 ? (?Y)2/n ssr =([ ?Xy-((?X)(?Y) )/n])/(?X2 – (?X)2/n) sse = sst ? Ssrwhere: Ssl is the full sums of squares, or ?(y ? )2, ssr is the sums of squares explained by using the regression, or ?( ? )2, sse is the unexplained errors, or ?(y? )2 is the expected (expected) cost of y for each fee of x, xij and yij are the person observed values, and are the means of x and y, n is the range of replicates in each treatment and n is the overall variety of observations.suggest squares are acquired by dividing sums of squares through their respective degrees of freedom. The significance check is accomplished by means of dividing the mean square regression by means of the suggest square errors. Under a null speculation of a zero slope this f-ratio might be disbursed as f with 1 and n ? 2 tiers of freedom.† (mcintyre, l. 1994).

College Inc Essay

After watching the documentary College Inc, I have come to the realization that colleges are not at all as they seem. Many colleges are a for-profit college which is institutions being operated by profit-seeking business. This video was pretty much about for-profit schools tuition being more than community college tuition. It was also about the lengths that for-profit schools will go to get as many people to enroll there and get the funds necessary to keep the college alive. The video also included the many for-profit colleges had so many people enroll and knew that, they were coercing kids and business executives to invest in there college. One thing I found very interesting was the fact that they are charging people more to take online classes, then to actually be in a class. I also found it interesting that most students are actually taking online classes which is a good idea especially, if they can not take actual classes or if they have a job that that takes up there time during the day/night. A second fact or observation I found interesting was this has been going on for how long and they are just now telling people about it. These profit schools are only profiting money, but the department of education is finally seeing what is going on with colleges. The government’s role in this scam is that they are aware of what’s going on but are not really doing anything, other than giving the colleges money to stay afloat. The colleges are in fear of losing there grants/funds because the department doesn’t see a growth in education and people finding jobs after they graduate. The colleges are telling kids what they want to hear, if you apply to so and so you will get tour diploma in no-time and find a job soon after. They way colleges are run like a business is the way people advertise and say what they can learn/ earn from the business they are in. What interests me as a business law student was that its in writing colleges have to do anything to get students to sign up and get started with classes. I do understand that for-profit colleges are putting pressure on there employees to get as many students enrolled in there school, or else they are the ones that are losing in the end. Another interest to me is that community colleges are very underrated, many people go to community college because they are not sure what they want to do in life or, they are working to provide for there families and themselves. Most community colleges are under funded so the expectations of the school are rising and the funds are going down each year, leading to perform with limited resources. One other interest to me is the fact that the colleges paint a picture perfect life when you get your diploma, but they do not tell you the enormous debt they leave you in when your done with there college. On the other hand I do believe that people should know what they are in for when signing up to a for-profit college, your are paying an arm and a leg for an education and then you are in debt for many years. In my opinion I believe in going to a community college is a good choice for at least a year or two. I believe this because if you don’t know what you want to do or you want to stay close to home, you can do that with a community college. You save a little more by going to a community college especially if you are trying to go part-time because you work, you can go to school but also save money incase you want to go to a four-year college. In closing after viewing the documentary College Inc, I have come to the conclusion that colleges are not as they seem. They will say anything to get students to enroll and then leave them to dry when they can not get a job after they graduate, and left with over a thousand dollars in debt.

Criminal Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Criminal Justice - Essay Example Any police officer trying to abuse an individual is liable to the act of oppression and people can therefore protect themselves from this form of oppression through use of the firearm as long as the cause is justifiable. Having this right protects the people from having to tolerate abuse of any form from the police simply because of their power. People are allowed to have freedom of speech, of exercising freely and make peaceful demonstrations as a way to express their grievances. Police officers take such opportunities to abuse the people by beating them or preventing them from congregating even though the first amendment has allowed them to do so. People are even arrested for no reason and some even taken to cells without any charges or fake charges such as destruction of property or resisting arrest are crowded on the individuals. This bill of right expressed in the first amendment curtails the police abuse to peaceful demonstrators and people freely expressing them-selves in speech or in press (Skeens, 2007). Lastly is the six amendment which demands that people who have criminal charges or those arrested also have their own rights which are supposed to be explained to them by the police during arrest as a way to protect themselves from police brutality and abuse. These rights include the right to be informed of the criminal charges that have made one be arrested, there is also the right to have a counsel to assist the criminally charged person as well as the right to witnesses in court. Under the Terry Stop, police are created balance so that they can be able to carry out their work effectively to preventing and dealing with crimes. This allows them to conduct searches and seizures if there is reasonable reason or if the person is under suspicion without even requiring a warrant. The police are also mandated to stop

THE CAUSES OF CRIME ARE REALLY IRRELEVANT AS FAR AS SITUATIONAL Essay

THE CAUSES OF CRIME ARE REALLY IRRELEVANT AS FAR AS SITUATIONAL REMEDIES ARE CONCERNED - DISCUSS - Essay Example In spite of this definition, some people persist in their behavior and thus commit crimes; the political society reacts by punishment, treatment or prevention.1 The hallmark of criminality is that, it is a breach of the criminal law. Lord Atkin in Proprietary Articles Trade Association v. A-G- for Canada2 stated that â€Å"the criminal quality of an act cannot be discerned by intuition; nor can it be discovered by reference to any standard but one; is the act prohibited with penal consequences?† Criminology is the scientific study of crime and criminals vis-à  -vis society. To know more about crimes they have to be measured and recorded. Measuring crime and Criminal Behavior is one of the most important functions of criminology. The availability and computing of crime statistics is a vital component of law enforcement. Crime statistics provide us with important facts that theories must then explain. Measuring crime and finding the crime rate is essential to discover the root causes of crime. The who, when, where, how of crimes is addressed by the quantitative techniques of measuring crime and which are vital in answering the why of crimes. Measuring criminal behavior is not just an academic exercise in futility, for it can fruitfully be used in evaluating criminal justice policy initiatives, policing, judicial and correctional administration amongst various other uses. The classicists4 believed that criminal behavior was a function of the human ability to choose an individual course of action. This school was based on hedonistic psychology. According to this psychology, man governs his behavior by considerations of pleasures and pains; the pleasures anticipated from a particular act may be balanced against the pains anticipated from the same act, or the algebraic sum of pleasure and pains from another act. The actor was assumed to have a free will and to make his choice

Singapore Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Singapore - Research Paper Example At the end of that period, the economy expound by 7.7%, reducing the level of unemployment to 2.1% and the level of employment being 235,000 (World Trade Organization, 2008, p. 112). The level of inflation, on the other hand, reduced from 4.9% to 3.5% this year. Singapore is one of the richest nations in the world. This has been facilitated by the removal of trade barriers, letting over 99% of the rest of the world to visit the country for trade without imposing a tax on them. This means that it is easy to import and export goods from and to other countries of the world and shows how open the country is. The currency used in Singapore is the Singapore dollar denoted as SD. It is almost equivalent to the US dollar with the exchange rate being 1USD =1.23 SD meaning that it is weaker than the US dollar by 0.23 (Huff, 1997, p. 44). Trade (expressed in billions of USD): Singapore Exports Imports 1975 5.375 8.133 1980 19.376 24.007 1985 22.812 26.285 1990 52.752 60.899 1995 118.268 124.507 1998 109.895 104.719 (International Monetary Fund, 1999) Trade is one the major factors that facilitate the growth of an economy since it earns the country foreign exchange that can be used to develop other sectors of that economy. It involves one country exporting goods that it produces more to avoid wastages and also importing goods that it lacks to avoid shortages. In this, it ensures resources are used appropriately and fully. Singapore’s current export stands at 41,538,700 showing a decrease by about 1,028,330.7 as compared to the previous period (Gerber, 2007, p. 94). Its major exports include: Aircraft and its parts Singapore is ranked number one among the many countries that provide aerospace design, manufacturing services and maintenance. It has all the required equipment to facilitate this, and this has also enabled it to capture a large market in Asia. It has created employment opportunities to the citizens, having over 18,000 employees in this sector. Oil and Gas Singapore is in the top three major traders of oil, and it has become the most important center for shipping in Asia. Oil is being used all over the world, and this is a major source of revenue for the government for different countries (Huff, 1997, p. 64). Since all the countries use oil and gas to run their daily activities, means that they have to purchase it. Singapore being one of the major exporters of oil and gas, it earns a lot, and this helps to improve its economic performance. Computers Computers are very essential in raising the total productivity and in transformation of business processes. Many of the citizens in Singapore have access to computers, and this has greatly contributed to its economy. Some of the computers produced are exported to the other part of the world, earning the country foreign exchange while others are used locally to facilitate or ease production of other products. The total trade value it obtains from export of computers and printers is about 1 2.5 billion (World Trade Organization, 2008, p. 119). Telecommunication Equipment Internet is very useful in the modern world. Many businesses advertise their products online as it is cheap and attracts many customers all over the world. With networking, it is easy to get more ideas on how you can compete globally through improving the quality of your products. Singapore provides the best network in the world and is in the

Statistics for Managers Project wk3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Statistics for Managers Project wk3 - Assignment Example Marketing is one of the most important functions within the organizations and as a result, the data collected on the marketing tool needs to be inclusive and properly structured in order to gain from the marketing policies and mechanisms employed. Statistical data on marketing is essential for a company and should be well-tabulated to ensure that the data is usable in the marketing research applications that the data is meant to improve. The company may conduct a survey on advertising and other marketing tools such as product promotion and measure the level of sales that has been influenced by the marketing tools (Balakrishnan, 2010). The company needs to conduct customer surveys and come up with the best structure and techniques in marketing that are not only attractive to the customers in the market but also offer a competitive advantage over the competitors (Balakrishnan, 2010). The methods employed by the company need to be assessed statistically to measure if they are working within the company and also measure if they have worked in other companies through their records. The analysis part is particularly simpler since the statistical data ensures that the information is properly structured and therefore easy to

Customer Service Satisfaction at the University of London Library Essay - 1

Customer Service Satisfaction at the University of London Library - Essay Example According to Quinn (2007) in recent times the educational community, generally and the library profession in particular have placed increasing emphasis on the service quality model. This model has customer satisfaction as its primary objective as traditional measures of academic library quality such as collection size becomes secondary. In assessing service quality the customer compares expectations about the service offered to actual experience with the service. Gap analysis is a tool that is used to identify the differences (gap) between what is expected and what is experienced. According to Berkowitz et al (1997, p.353) this type of analysis requires consumers to assess their expectations and experiences on dimensions of service quality as described in the table that follows. In the context of service quality and customer satisfaction, of importance, is the need to look at the service that the library provides in order to see how it can fulfil expectations. The role of the library is to provide resource materials for its customers. But, who exactly are these customers? They are students, administrators, faculty members and the general public. In terms of reliability the library must be able to provide the student with a book, journal or other resource material which will enable the completion of a required task. While the librarian is expected to provide the service in a timely manner, there is the need for the student to exercise some skills in how to access required materials to carry out his or her role. The librarian however, is available to provide some guidance but the student independence is of extreme importance in the development of worthwhile skills which will be required in the future.

Risk Management Plan in hospital (2) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6750 words

Risk Management Plan in hospital (2) - Essay Example Administrative control Cost containment Part of the business plan for the hospital Hospital Risk Management: Operative Activities Risk identification Preparation for emergencies and disaster Proper discharge and appropriate patient transfer Attainment of informed patient consent Optimal medical staff monitoring and peer review Claims investigation and claims management Specific disease policies Administrative Control Administration Operation Environmental concerns Patient care Medical ancillary departments Legal and ethical issues Financing for these activities Scope Cost containment Counteracting spiraling risk associated costs Specific risks and their solutions Improvement in stakeholder satisfaction Integration with quality assessment Specific Risks Liability risks Malpractice suits Local legislation and regulations Financing and insuring risks Risk prevention Transfer techniques Patients' rights Accidental falls Property damage Reduction in cash flow Employee benefit risks Lowering community image Objectives A confident decision making and planning to ensure patient safety Analysis of patient safety issues and policies yields accurate identification of opportunities and threats Appraisal of uncertainty and variability of scenarios and extracting meaning out of them Proactive management and planning targeted at prevention Uniform and legitimate allocation of resources in synchronization with quality policies of the hospital Efficient management of adverse incidents leading to cost cutting and loss prevention Enhanced stakeholder trust, reputation of hospital, and confidence building in potential future customers Conformity to legislative and legal frameworks Smooth and effective corporate and clinical...From that perspective, while dealing with the issues related to patient safety, it must be considered that most medical and nursing professionals are aware about the issues related to patient safety. Studies of other high-risk industries and human factor engineering have led to advancement of knowledge about how mistakes and errors can lead to compromise in patient safety while cared for in a hospital. Indeed, the issues with patient safety are very closely linked with quality of care delivered, and medical profession is ethically bound by the principles of no harm. Current knowledge indicates that many people admitted to the hospital may suffer an injury resulting from error or negligence on the part of caregiver, for which not only the hospital, but also healthcare professional is responsible leading to liabilities. These are known as adverse events, and a risk management plan drawn on the current scenario of the care in the hospital wo uld be legitimate. In this assignment drawing on the AS/ANZ 4360:2004 as developed in HB436:2004, a risk management plan for patient safety in this writer's hospital will be developed with appropriate arguments for all steps of the plan. Connection of the context with the hospital's internal policies of safety risk solutions, quality control, goals, and objec

Business Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Business Finance - Essay Example The maximization act in general is the one being criticized as the managers tend to be carried away by the mere feeling to satisfice and not really come up with means of maximizing or optimizing according the theories of finance. This means that the mangers go for solutions which they regard as satisfactory yet they need to seek the best solutions that are possible respecting the existing constraints. Considering the structure of most modern firms, it is almost impossible to single out the mangers true motives. Modern firms are mostly organized to operate as a corporation where shareholders happen to be the legal owners of such firms and the managers have been given the mandate to act on behalf of their shareholders. This happens if the manager is out to merely satisfy the firm’s stockholders while at the same time pursing other goals of his or her own interests that are in no manner related to attempts to try and maximize the firm’s value. A good example is charitable organizations where it is hard to tell the firm’s support makes an integral part of its value maximization in long terms. In addition, considering a case where the size of the firm in continuously increasing yet the profits are not; this can be attributed to the decision of the manager to have his motivation as being to expand the size of the business through increasing its prestige association with other lager firms or an effort to make the firm more recognized on the market place. It becomes very hard to come up with definite answers to situations like the ones mentioned above resulting to some of the financial theorists to come up with theories on firm behavior. The theories have come up with different situation in relation to the managers and maximization of the ownership wealth. They include; A firm manager may primarily try to maximize the growth or size of the firm and not its current value, the firm’s manager may try to maximize their own welfare or utility and in other cases a firm being considered as a collection of different individuals who have divergent goals rather than one common goal (Williamson 2000, p. 73) As the financial theories regarding firm try to increase the understanding on how firms behave, they don’t necessarily provide the most desired solution especially when it comes to wealth maximization considering the dynamics in the structures of different firms. However, they serve as basis for better understanding and interpretation of different behaviors witnessed in firms. Financial theorists have argued that it is the intense market competition for services and goods that usually force the firm managers to make decisions regarding value and wealth maximization. If a firm fails to come up with the right decision regarding alternatives that are most efficient which imply the need to go for maximum costs for every output level, considering the commodity market price being produced by the firm, other firms may end up o utcompeting the firm thus pushing it out of existence. Competition also impacts the firm operations through the capital market. In such as case, stockholders are mainly interested in their stocks returns as well as the prices of their stock which are determined by the value of the firm, that is the expected profits current value that has been discounted. This forces the managers to maximize the profits of the

Anything Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Anything - Essay Example This leads to accumulation of body fat. D. Enumerated Preview: This research will analyze the importance of exercise and healthy balanced meal in reducing the pressing issue of obesity. Obesity has been contributed by our current sedentary lifestyle and the over-consumption of energy- dense foods. 1. The role of culture in fitness and diet programs. There is a cultural pattern of being bigger and fat, and this is not a good trend. Most cultural norms discourage the consumption of a healthy meal. This encourages unhealthy meal consumption. 3. The nation’s public health strategy for addressing overweight and obesity issue. The government has come up with healthy eating strategies and action plans for school growing children. This is with the intention of curbing the issue of obesity and overweight. This strategy is organized into three goals which comprise of incorporating healthy meals, reducing the access and consumption of calorie-dense foods, and raising health awareness (Edelman, Mandle & Kudzma

Language of Hysteria Essay Example for Free

Language of Hysteria Essay During the 1690s, there was a mass hysteria due to beliefs of the existence of witches. With this fact came the Salem Witch Trials which occurred in Salem Village, Massachusetts. A young child began to exhibit abnormal behaviour and so she was taken in to be examined, they found nothing that could cause her to behave in such a manner. The entire village began to panick and started praying to God to get rid of evil. Conspiracies began to take rise in the village that made the villagers believe that there were witches in their village. Three women were accused of having relations with the Satan. Accusations grew larger and soon there were people who were tried and were killed. These events led to the Salem Witch Trials. The hysteria grew and began to worry people of high standings and soon the assumptions of witchcraft ended. Due to misconceptions and assumptions the Salem Witch Trials began. During the 1930s there was a mass hysteria of alien invasions. This became known as the War of the Worlds radio broadcast sent out by Orson Welles. Welles adds in effects that could cause the people to go into a state of panic. He got the idea from H. G. Wells’ novel The War of the Worlds. Bad timing became the cause of this mass hysteria. Due to the fact that during those times many people had radios and most families were listening to popular shows and by the time they got to Welles’ they were not able to listen to his introduction. They heard music being interrupted and surprising news of explosions and other sounds that exemplify an alien invasion. The people that tuned in to the radio broadcast late misunderstood and developed a fear and this one of the many causes of the mass hysteria in the 1930s. During the 1690s and the 1930s there mass hysterias like the Salem Witch Trials and the War of the Worlds radio broadcast that caused people to go into panic. These panic attacks were due to misconceptions and misunderstandings. The connection between these two mass hysterias is that the people misunderstood in both situations and caused them to start to panic. These two events have the common factor of how the events occurred.

Sport Is Neither Solely Media Essay

Sport Is Neither Solely Media Essay Sport is often overlooked regarding its influence on cultural and social structures in society Schirato, 2007 However, research has demonstrated that sport associations and various sport-related special interest groups have a resounding impact on larger societal perceptions. Furthermore, sport serves as a key outlet of cultural expression, and often contributes to national pride (Schirato Webb, 2003). The purpose of this essay is to discuss sports role in society and its impact on these cultural and social structures. Specifically, this essay aims to address sports specific role as a vehicle for cultural homogeneity, as well as a medium for national resistance. Drawing on examples of sports role in the global process and its impact on national identity, this essay provides evidence supporting the argument that this form of cultural expression fulfils multiple societal purposes. This essay concludes with a brief summary and outline of key points. Sport as a Vehicle for Cultural Homogeneity This section discusses the role of sport as a vehicle for cultural homogeneity. First, a definition of cultural homogeneity is provided, along with a general discussion of sports implications for promoting this ideology. The Olympic Games are cited as a specific example of sports facilitating role in promoting cultural assimilation. Finally, football is a key example of sport contributing to homogeneity and this sport is discussed in relation to both the United Kingdom and the European Union. Cultural Homogeneity Cultural homogeneity refers to a sense of societal similitude, in which the majority of the population shares the same ideas, values, and even demographic characteristics (Tomlinson Young, 2006). Contrary to cultural diversity, a culturally homogenous society is one that is generally dictated by political leaders (Stolyarov, 2011). According to Tomlinson and Young (2006), cultural homogeneity provides a number of advantages, such as facilitating national pride and increasing peace within a nations borders. However, Tomlinson and Young (2006) also warn of the perils of a culturally homogenous society. For example, the idea is cultural homogeneity is often one that is forced on citizens by the ruling class, and can inhibit national progress (Stolyarov, 2011). Furthermore, cultural homogeneity stifles independent thinking and can contribute to racism and bigotry toward other cultures (Stolyarov, 2011). Ideally, a balance between cultural homogeneity and cultural diversity must be struc k. Sport is a form of cultural expression that helps facilitate this balance and promotes more positive aspects of cultural homogeneity (Schirato, 2007). In many cultures, sport is essential to national identity (Schirato, 2007). Similarly, sport serves as a vehicle for the expression of nationalist sentiment, (Bairner, 2001, p. 12) allowing politicians to promote a link between sport and national political thought. Olympic Games The Olympic Games have long served as a vehicle for cultural homogeneity, both within the host country and each respective participating nation (Dzankic, 2012). In preparation for the Olympic Games, the host country often experiences increased national uniformity and diminished conflict (Schirato, 2007). For example, during the 2000 games in Sydney, the Olympic Games promoted an effective cultural focal point as increasing migrant problems continued to threaten Australias cultural homogeneity (Magdalinski, 2001). During this time, the Asian economic recession severely affected Australias financial security and the nation experienced widespread societal conflict (Magdalinski, 2001). However, the emphasis on preparing for the games helped to unify citizens, as well as provide an economic boost. Both of these benefits have had a lasting impact within Australias borders (Magdalinski, 2001). The 2012 summer games in London have had a similar impact within the United Kingdom. Concerns existed in hosting the games in London due to the 2011 riots that occurred in various boroughs (Dzankic, 2012). More than 3,000 people were arrested within London and five died from the violence associated with the riots. Although the specific cause of the riots was due to a police shooting, the societal outcry reflected more widespread issues such as racism, class discrepancies, and a general economic decline within the United Kingdom (Dzankic, 2012). Furthermore, the violence exhibited cultural problems such as diminishing social morality and rising criminal behaviour (Dzankic, 2012). As with the Sydney games, London was praised for its high level of security and organisation (Dzankic, 2012). Hosting the games helped unify Londons citizens and enthuse the population (Dzankic, 2012). The economic and social impacts of the games still remain to be seen. However, Dzankic (2012) asserts that t he positive repercussions from hosting the games will be felt for multiple generations within London and the United Kingdom. Football Football serves as a particularly strong vehicle for cultural homogeneity within the United Kingdom and throughout Europe (King, 2000). Research (e.g., Tomlinson Young, 2006) has indicated that football plays a central role in promoting both individual and group identity among its fans. European club football, for example, has developed into a central focus for cultural and economic assimilation within the European Union (King, 2000). Interestingly, this integration has not contributed to increased cultural homogeneity among the union, but has, rather, promoted rising competition between its national members (King, 2000). The cultural homogeneity has become stronger within individual countries and not for the union itself (Tomlinson Young, 2006). Oftentimes, the success of European football clubs serves as an expression of emerging national identities and has significant cultural and economic influences (King, 2000). FC Barcelonas success in recent years is a contemporary example o f the emergence of the Catalan national identity. Sport as a Vehicle for National Resistance This section describes sports role in promoting national resistance. A definition of national resistance is first provided, followed by a discussion of historical examples in which sport has helped support citizens efforts to resistance national politics. Finally, specific examples are presented within the United Kingdom. National Resistance National resistance occurs anytime citizens within a nation express opposition to the overlying philosophical, social, and political ideologies of the ruling class (Schirato Webb, 2003). A number of specific national resistance movements have occurred in developing and developed nations worldwide. Even within the United Kingdom, multiple national resistance movements have occurred among groups that seek to prevent cultural homogeneity and protect the typically conservative values of its advocates (Schirato Webb, 2003). Historical Examples As with cultural homogeneity, sports social and political underpinnings have served as a platform for supporting various forms of national resistance (Bairner, 2001). In a classic example from the 1968 Olympic Games, a group of African American athletes symbolically protested their nations involvement in the Vietnam War by raising their fists on the podium (Bairner, 2001). Ok (2005) also illustrates the political significance of sport in a case study of Korean national resistance to Japanese colonial policy in the early 20th century. Finally, Lin and Lee (2007) assert that sport provided a medium for national resistance as baseball gained widespread popularity in Asia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to these authors, baseball played a central role in advancing the Japanese colonial governments efforts to integrate Taiwanese society (Lin Lee, 2007). However, the Taiwanese were well aware of this political strategy and the acceptance of baseball was met with r esistance (Lin Lee, 2007). Sport can also be viewed as a means of cultural resistance within minority groups against racism and classism (Rowe, 2003). According to Rowe (2003), sport is particularly powerful in the United States as African Americans use sport as a form of resistance to Caucasian racism. In the two most popular sports leagues in the United States, the National Football League and the National Basketball Association, the majority of players are of African American descent (Rowe, 2003). In Major League baseball, a large percentage of players are also of African American descent, while Hispanics and Asians also account for a substantial portion of the league (Ok, 2005). According to Carrington (1998), sport has resulted in the development of specifically race-themed sport institutions, and served as a symbolic indicator of cultural identity in opposition to a predominantly Caucasian society. Sport and National Resistance in the United Kingdom One historical example of national resistance within the United Kingdom occurred in the mid-1990s when Sport England began to allocate funding gained from the Sports Lottery (Garrett, 2004). At the time, this funding source was the largest ever made available to sport in the United Kingdom and resulted in a substantial number of voluntary sports clubs at the grass roots level (Garrett, 2004). However, this funding allocation was initially criticised for serving to advance the political goals of the Department of Culture Media and Sport (DCMS), and did not necessarily reflect the needs of the population (Garrett, 2004). Voluntary sports clubs varied in their willingness to support the funding conditions, and national resistance resulted due to the discrepancy between the amount of funding allocated and the level of benefit granted to sport within England (Garrett, 2004). The United Kingdom has experienced similar results as the United States in the development of its professional sports leagues (Spracklen, Hylton Long, 2006). Sport has served as a platform for minority groups to resist the contingent notions of whiteness embedded in British sport (Spracklen, Hylton Long, 2006, p. 291). Although sport in the United Kingdom continues to be dominated by Caucasians, the Sporting Equals Racial Equality Standards have helped resist this status and promoted organisational change within United Kingdom sports leagues (Spracklen, Hylton Long, 2006). Sports Role in the Global Process This section describes sports role in the globalisation of a culture and the general global process. The global process is first defined, followed by sports specific role in cultural globalisation. Specific examples of the effects of this increased globalisation are then presented. Global Process The global process is a general term to describe the assimilation and increased congruence of cultures worldwide (Schirato Webb, 2003). Globalisation is caused by multiple factors, including social, cultural, political, and environmental contributions (Schirato Webb, 2003). The 21st century has witnessed the most rapid period of globalisation in history, as more information is shared between cultures than ever before (Schirato Webb, 2003). Any process that contributes to a broader international exchange of information and resources can be considered a form of globalisation, and advances in communication technologies have significantly influenced this phenomenon (Schirato Webb, 2003). Role of Sport There is little question that sport has greatly contributed to globalisation. Major worldwide sporting events, such as the Olympic Games and Word Cup serve as primary examples of this globalisation process. The expansion of sport and infusion of athletes from all over the world into major sports leagues has played a pivotal role in integrating cultural and social ideals (Dzankic, 2012). While few would argue that sport has been at the forefront of increased globalisation in the 21st century, some researchers (e.g., Rowe, 2003) attest that sport may not promote the cultural assimilation than was previously thought. For example, Rowe (2003) asserts that sport is so deeply dependent on the production of national cultural difference that it repudiates the possibility of comprehensive globalization (p. 281). Rowe (2003) contests that sports inherent nature actually promotes a resistance to globalisation, and prevents future cultural assimilation. Though this view is somewhat bleak and over-simplistic, an increasing number of sociologists appear to be adopting the same position (Stolyarov, 2011). Perhaps a more accurate depiction of sports role in the globalisation process is to suggest that it serves not just as a vehicle for cultural homogeneity or resistance, but fulfils both outcomes. The cultural integration that has occurred through major worldwide sporting events is undeniable (Schirato Webb, 2003). Though sport is riddled with deep historic national roots that have been the subject of intercontinental controversy, these barriers have been typically overcome in most cases as sports have experienced more internationally-based governing bodies (Schirato, 2007). Congruence has been reached in most major sports regarding rules and politics and few sports belong to just one nation or another (Giulianotti Robertson, 2009). Effects of Globalisation Giulianotti and Robertson (2009) describe how, in just a few centuries, simplistic pasture games have evolved into complex sports with precise rules, and are competed on a global level. All major sports include athletes from all over the world, and the accessibility of equipment and sports leagues for young athletes has increased at an exponential rate in recent history (Giulianotti Robertson, 2009). However, like Rowe (2003), these authors suggest that sports role in the global process does not necessarily facilitate the most ideal forms of cultural integration. The competitive nature of sport may induce a rise in cultural tension in many cases, and the globalisation of the economic side of sport has been the subject of cultural conflict (Giulianotti Robertson, 2009). As sport not longer serves solely as a form of entertainment, and has significant financial ramifications for many countries, some attest that sport is equally responsible for cultural dissemination (Giulianotti Rob ertson, 2009). Within the United Kingdom, Boyle (2010) further highlights the manner in which sport has changed from a form of entertainment into a capitalist industrial complex (p. 1300). The complex relationship between globalisation and national identity particularly manifests itself in the form of football (Boyle, 2010). The severe economic underpinnings of football within the United Kingdom have contributed to a number of cases of international tension and conflict. When beloved football star David Beckham left Europe to play professional football in the United States, for example, he became the scapegoat for increased cultural tensions between citizens of each nation (Boyle, 2010). Sports Role in the Reproduction of National Identities This section emphasises sports role in the reproduction of national identities. As sport is closely related to the adoption of ones national identity, this form of cultural expression provides an outlet to reproduce these ideals on an international level. A definition and discussion of this process is first presented on a global level. Specific examples related to the United Kingdom then follow. National Identities A national identity refers to a persons feelings of belonging to a particular nation, and the congruence of these feelings with other members of the nation (Boyle, 2010). A national identity tends to develop and evolve over time, and is highly dependent on an individuals acceptance of the political, cultural, and social ideals of his or her country. Although this concept is highly variable, research (e.g., Smith Porter, 2004) illustrates that national identity consistently strengthens through multiple platforms, such as the military and media (Smith Porter, 2004). Role of Sport Sport has also consistently served as one of these key platforms of national identity. According to Bairner (2001), most citizens display increased national pride when a member of his or her country experiences athletic success on a global level. Sport has also been used to symbolically reflect the strength, beauty, and vitality of its citizens. A common perception exists that athletic success translates to economic and political fortitude of a particular nation, and numerous countries distribute large percentages of funding resources into sport programs for this very reason (Tomlinson Young, 2006). Even in smaller nations such as Taiwan, sport plays a role in forming citizens national identities and contributes to civic patriotism (Bairner, 2001). Athletic success further contributes to the global perception of cohesiveness among a particular nation and helps integrate divided ethnic groups (Bairner, 2001). The advantages of sport in reproducing national identities is no more obvious than in the competition between nations to host the Olympic games or other global sporting events (Tomlinson Young, 2006). According to Tomlinson and Young (2006), these events provide a basis for which political ideologies can be spread, emit a global sense of cohesive national identity, and serve as measuring sticks for the evolving social and political environment of an ever-increasing global society. Furthermore, the long-term financial advantages gained from these perceptions of national pride, such as increased trade and foreign investment, far outweigh the initial costs of hosting major sporting events (Dzankic, 2012). Historical Examples During the imperial stages of Britains cultural history, sport was used as a means of training citizens to adopt its values and beliefs (Giulianotti Robertson, 2009). This period had a strong influence on forming the British national identity, and also served to promote both social and political assimilation among lower and higher classes (Rowe, 2003). The results from the adoption of sport continue to manifest in the form of local and national competitions that honour the British crown and celebrate British cultural similitude (Rowe, 2003). Once again, the London Olympics illustrate the links between sports and reproduction of national identity (Dzankic, 2012). While sport is often only viewed for its competitive aspect, Dzankic (2012) asserts that sport has become an increasing symbol of national pride. The level of patriotism displayed at global sporting events such as the Olympics places a spotlight on the nations politics, and sport plays an important role for understanding a nation and its citizens (Dzankic, 2012). Sport goes beyond its superficial physical aspect and serves as a manifestation of all of a nations social, political and cultural elements (Dzankic, 2012). Contributing to sport and rooting for national teams, individuals display their citizenship and exhibit their consolidation to a political regime (Rowe, 2003). In every nation that has hosted the Olympics, England included, the citizens have enjoyed an increased sense of unity and national identity in the years that followed (Dzankic, 2012). Summary and Conclusion Sport is often overlooked regarding its influence on cultural and social structures in society. Sport can be considered a form of cultural expression that promotes more positive aspects of cultural homogeneity. Specifically, the Olympic Games have long served as a vehicle for cultural homogeneity, both within the host country and each respective participating nation. Football also serves as a particularly strong vehicle for cultural homogeneity within the United Kingdom and throughout Europe. National resistance occurs anytime citizens within a nation expression opposition to the overlying philosophical, social, and political ideologies of the ruling class. As with cultural homogeneity, sports social and political underpinnings have served as a platform for supporting various forms of national resistance. Sport can also be viewed as a means of cultural resistance within minority groups against racism and classism. One historical example of national resistance within the United Kingdom occurred in the mid-1990s when Sport England began to allocate funding gained from the Sports Lottery. Globalisation is caused by multiple factors, including social, cultural, political, and environmental. There is little question that sport has greatly contributed to globalisation. Major worldwide sporting events, such as the Olympic Games and Word Cup serve as primary examples of this globalisation process. All major sports include athletes from all over the world, and the accessibility of equipment and sports leagues for young athletes has increased at an exponential rate in recent history. Sport has consistently served as one of these key platforms of national identity. The advantages of sport in reproducing national identities are evident in the competition that exists between nations to host the Olympic Games or other global sporting events. The level of patriotism displayed at global sporting events such as the Olympics places a spotlight on the nations politics, and sport plays an important role for understanding a nation and its citizens. Based on the evidence provided, it can be said that sport is both a vehicle for cultural homogeneity, as well as a medium for national resistance.

Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP) Collection, Preparation and Uses

Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP) Collection, Preparation and Uses Samuel Good Fresh Frozen Plasma Introduction Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP) is the name for the liquid portion of human blood, which has been frozen and preserved. It is taken by blood donation and is stored until needed for blood transfusion. FFP has been available since 1941 (Hoffman, et al, 1990), it was used initially as a volume expander (Erber, et al, 2006), but is now used for the â€Å"management and prevention of bleeding in coagulopathic patients† (Ho, et al, 2005). The term FFP is confusing as the plasma cannot be frozen as well as fresh at the same time. What the term implies is that the plasma was frozen rapidly after it was taken and therefore can be considered fresh. The plasma, from a transfusion aspect, contains essential components such as fibrinogen, albumin, globulin and coagulation factors. These allow for specific individual components to be transferred to a recipient who is in need. The most efficient and effective way to make optimum use of blood which has been donated, is to separate it into its individual components. This process allows for a â€Å"wider availability of blood products† (Spence, et al, 2006) and also reduces the risk patients are exposed to â€Å"transfusion-related risks† (Erber, et al, 2006). The use of FFP and its individual products has increased tenfold since its first introduction (Hoffman, et al, 1990). One reason for this may be the declining availability of whole blood because of the trend to use component therapy (Spence, et al, 2006). Collection and Storage When a donor gives a unit of whole blood, the blood is then separated into several components parts. These include; packed red blood cells (pRBC), platelets and FFP. If required the FFP can be further divided into cryoprecipitate and something called cryo-poor plasma. Cryo-poor plasma is rarely used as a therapeutic response (Lauzier, et al, 2007). As mentioned previously, plasma is the non-cellular, liquid part of the blood. It is made up of; water, electrolytes and proteins. The proteins include the clotting factors and intrinsic coagulants (Murray, et al, 1995). The plasma is separated from the blood after donation and then frozen. For the plasma to be considered ‘fresh’ it must be frozen â€Å"within eight hours of collection† (Murray, et al, 1995) and stored at a temperature of minus 18 degrees centigrade or lower. If this fails to happen, the product is known just as ‘frozen plasma’, which like cryo-poor plasma, is rarely used for therapeutic means. However, to maintain coagulation factors to optimum levels the plasma should be stored at minus 30 degrees centigrade (Lauzier, et al, 2007). FFP can be prepared by separation from whole blood or via plasmapheresis. Plasmapheresis is the name given to a â€Å"broad range of procedures† where â€Å"extracorporeal separation of blood components† (Erber, et al, 2006) results in a plasma which is filtered. Preparation To summarise, FFP is collected in citrate-containing anticoagulant solution, frozen within 8 hours and stored at minus 30 degrees centigrade for up to a year. Although every protection is taken to ensure sterility, it is quite possible for the donor to have an asymptomatic bacteraemia at the time of donation (Stanworth, et al, 2004). The bacteria will have its proliferation down-regulated by the plasma being frozen. However, FFP can still sometimes transmit infectious diseases. Therefore, screening and pathogen inactivation may be performed to reduce the risk. FFP contains no RBC’s and also no WBC’s. As there are no WBC’s the plasma is referred to be as being leucodepleted. This is an indication as to why FFP can transmit said diseases. As mentioned pathogen inactivation can be performed and this is done by using either Methylene blue or a solvent/detergent process. The Methylene Blue Technique Methylene blue is a dye that has been shown to be very effective in the inactivation of pathogens. It binds to nucleic acids and, on illumination with white light, singlet oxygen is formed. This then destroys viral DNA and RNA, therefore viral replication cannot take place. Solvent/Detergent Technique This technique is used for the preparation of factors viii and ix as well as immunoglobulins. First, a solvent is added to the plasma which removes the lipid viral envelope. After this is complete, a detergent is added which inactivates the viral contents. The solvent and detergent are then removed by a physical separation technique, in which they are dissolved in oil. Column chromatography can then be used to isolate factors viii and ix. Once any treatment that is required is complete, the FFP is ready for use. It is an accepted practice that FFP is thawed before use (Ho, et al, 2005). The required units of FFP are placed in a water bath set at 30 – 37 degrees centigrade for approximately 20 – 30 minutes. Von Heyman, et al investigated the effects of 2 different thawing machines and running warm water of 43 degrees centigrade, on the activity of clotting factors, inhibitors and activation markers in FFP. They discovered no significant differences in the activity of coagulation markers over a 6 hour period post thawing. However, a major conclusion found was that, if FFP is immediately transfused after thawing, the product remained rich in clotting factors. Also, if the plasma is left, the activity of said clotting factors decline gradually and therefore FFP should only be maintained at room temperature for up to 4 hours. If thawed FFP is not used within 24 hours it becomes a separate product known as ‘thawed plasma’ (Murray, et al, 1995). Most clotting factors are stable in thawed plasma, however some labile factors, such as v and viii are not. Their degradation actually accelerates whilst the plasma is in a liquid state (Lauzier, et al, 2007). The only main advantage of having thawed plasma readily available, is that it can be transfused rapidly if a severely injured patient requires it. FFP Blood Type Specific It is widely accepted that O negative is the universal donor for pRBC’s, however for FFP this isn’t the case. A and B antigens of the blood are located on the red cells themselves. Type O individuals are devoid of these proteins on their red blood cells. Plasma does not contain RBC’s, but it contains antibodies to the corresponding absent protein. An example of this is: Type A individual has Anti-B antibodies in their blood. Type O plasma has both Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies and is incompatible with about 55 percent of the population. An individual with type AB blood has neither Anti-A nor Anti-B antibodies. This makes the AB plasma ideal for universal use when the blood type of the patient is unknown. The Rh status is irrelevant because any plasma with Anti-D is destroyed at the manufacturing stage. Recipient blood Acceptable blood groups of donor plasma O O,A,B,AB A A,AB B B,AB AB AB The major problem with blood type AB is that the percentage of the population which has it is only 4 percent. Therefore it is better to use FFP which is blood type compatible, which will be determined at the blood bank. Usage There are very few actual specific needs for the use of FFP (Spence, et al, 2006). Usually FFP is used to treat â€Å"deficiencies of coagulation proteins where specific factor concentrates are unavailable† (Hoffman, et al, 1990). Coagulation deficiencies can occur in a variety of different clinical situations. These include massive blood loss, surgery, and infection or acquired multiple coagulation factor deficiencies. Examples of FFP usage: Replacement of isolated factor deficiencies Reversal of Warfarin effects Massive blood transfusion Antithrombin III deficiency Treatment of immunodeficiency Treatment of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura Treatment of Disseminated intravascular coagulation Replacement of isolated factor deficiency FFP can be used to heat deficiencies of factors II, V, VII, IX, X and XI. It is only chosen as a treatment when no specific component therapy is available. Certain factors require a different haemostatic level, for example; severe factor X deficiency only requires a factor level of about 10 percent. Therefore FFP has a range of success when treating factor deficiencies. Reversal of Warfarin effect If a patient is being treated with Warfarin, they have been shown to be deficient in â€Å"functional vitamin K dependent coagulation factors II, VII, IX and X† (Spence, et al, 2006). Usually vitamin K will be administered, however anticoagulated patients will be actively bleeding, and therefore FFP can be used. Massive blood transfusion The use of FFP as a treatment on massive blood transfusion has increased over the decades. Massive bleeding is defined as â€Å"the loss of one blood volume within 24 hours† or as â€Å"50 percent blood loss within 3 hours† or a â€Å"bleeding rate of 150 ml/minute† (Lauzier, et al, 2007). It is indicated for use in patients who have documented blood clotting abnormalities after large blood loss and who are in need of urgent treatment. This is due to the fact that in most emergency situations it is unacceptable to wait hours for lab results to be returned. Antithrombin III deficiency FFP is sometimes used as a source of Antithrombin III in people who are deficient of this inhibitor. Especially if the patients are undergoing surgery or who use Heparin to treat thrombosis. Treatment of Immunodeficiency FFP has been used in children and adults with a humoral immunodeficiency as a source of immunoglobulin. It is also sometimes used for infants when parental nutrition is lacking, and they are suffering with severe protein losing enteropathy (Erber, et al, 2006). Treatment of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura The treatment recommended for this condition is a daily plasma exchange (Murray, et al, 1995). Prompt intervention is indicated if development of neurological abnormalities start to appear. This plasma exchange usually continues for at least 2 days after remission (Ho, et al, 2005). Treatment of Disseminated intravascular coagulation Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is a syndrome where the control of the coagulation system becomes disturbed and out of control. This is usually due to pro-coagulants being dispersed into circulation (Stanworth, et al, 2004). Most of the time this happens secondary to a disease or disorder, such as cancer. In the presence of DIC, fibrinogen, platelets and coagulation factors V and VIII become rapidly depleted. FFP is given as treatment to prevent further problems or progression. Treatment usually involves a patient being infused with a single line of FFP and then coagulation tests performed to assess the clinical benefit (Stanworth, et al, 2004). There are also some conditional uses where FFP can be used but is not the first choice treatment, such as liver disease and Paediatric use. If patients have an abnormal coagulation profile and are suffering from liver disease, they can be treated with FFP. There is varying success and treatment must be monitored by regular transfusion coagulation tests. Clotting times of infants have been shown to be longer than that of adults (Murray, et al, 1995), and even longer in premature babies (OShaughnessy, et al, 2004). Vitamin K deficiency is the most common cause of neonatal bleeding (Murray, et al, 1995). FFP can be used to counter the effects if required. In the case of babies suffering from haemorrhagic disease of the newborn, FFP can be used as treatment. But only if the â€Å"chance of bleeding is greater than the risk of harmful reactions† to the treatment with FFP (Lauzier, et al, 2007). Risks As with any transfusion there is a risk of infection, the main risks identified include: Disease transmission Excessive intravascular volume Anaphylactoid reactions Alloimmunisation Transfusion related acute lung injury The risks associated with viral infectivity of FFP are similar to that of whole blood and RBC’s. As mentioned earlier this risk can be countered by photochemically treating the plasma. Allergic reactions that occur in response to FFP transfusion vary in severity from â€Å"hives to fatal non-cardiac pulmonary oedema† (Stanworth, et al, 2004). Transfusion relate acute lung injury (TRALI) is defined as a â€Å"new episode of acute lung injury within 6 hours of complicated therapy† (OShaughnessy, et al, 2004). It manifests as severe respiratory problems, including hypoxia and other symptoms linked to pulmonary oedema. Symptoms will usually subside 2 days after ceasing FFP treatment (Stanworth, et al, 2004). Alloimmunisation can occur if Anti-Rh antibodies are formed after treatment with FFP. To counter this, plasma containing Anti-D antibodies should not be given to an RhD-positive recipient. There has also been reported incidences of post-transfusion Hepatitis, and depends on a number factors, including donor selection. Also with any intravenously transfused fluid, there is a chance of hypervolemia which could lead to cardiac failure, therefore administration of FFP should not be given in excessive doses. Below is a suggested dosage breakdown: Volume of 1 Unit Plasma: 200-250 mL 1 mL plasma contains 1 u coagulation factors 1 Unit contains 220 u coagulation factors Factor recovery with transfusion = 40% 1 Unit provides ~80 u coagulation factors 70 kg X .05 = plasma volume of 35 dL (3.5 L) 80 u = 2.3 u/dL = 2.3% (of normal 100 u/dL) 35 dL In a 70 kg Patient: 1 Unit Plasma increases most factors ~2.5% 4 Units Plasma increase most factors ~10% Figures taken from (http://reference.medscape.com/drug/ffp-octaplas-fresh-frozen-plasma-999499) Conclusion In conclusion, FFP can be used as an effective treatment for a number of different clinical issues. It also does not come without risk and therefore FFP should be collected, stored, prepared and used in an efficient and safe manner. Below I have summarised the administration of FFP. FFP (Fresh Frozen Plasma) Volume: 240-300ml (mean 273ml) Storage: designated temperature controlled freezer. Core temperature -30 o C Shelf life: 24 months (frozen) Must be ABO compatible, but Rh is not necessary to be considered for transfusion and no anti D prophylaxis is required if Rh-D negative patients receive Rh-D positive FFP. Prior to the transfusion FFP must be thawed under controlled conditions using specifically designed equipment. Thawing usually takes approximately 15-30 minutes Once thawed, FFP must not be re-frozen and should be transfused as quickly as possible. Post-thaw storage results in a decline in the quality of coagulation factors. If stored at 4 degrees centigrade post thawing (in a designated temperature controlled refrigerator), the transfusion must be completed within 24 hours of thawing. Pooled solvent-detergent treated plasma is also commercially available Dose: typically 10-15ml/kg. This dose may need to be exceeded in massive haemorrhage depending on the clinical situation and its monitoring (BCSH 2004) Typical infusion rate 10-20ml/kg/hr (approximately 30 minutes per unit) Rapid infusion may be appropriate when given to replace coagulation factors during major haemorrhage. There is anecdotal evidence that acute reactions may be more common with faster administration rates. (http://reference.medscape.com/drug/ffp-octaplas-fresh-frozen-plasma-999499) REFERENCES Erber WN, Perry DJ: Plasma and plasma products in the treatment of massive hemorrhage. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2006, 19:97-112 Hewson JR, Neame PB, Kumar N, Ayrton A, Gregor P, Davis C, Shragge BW. Coagulopathy related to dilution and hypotension during massive transfusion. Crit Care Med. 1985;13(5):387-391. Ho AM, Karmakar MK, Dion PW. Are we giving enough coagulation factors during major trauma resuscitation? Am J Surg. 2005;190(3):479-484. Hoffman M, Jenner P. Variability in fibrinogen and Von Willebrand factor content of cryoprecipitate.  Brief Sci Rep. 1990;93(5):694-697. Lauzier F, Cook D, Griffith L, Upton J, Crowther M: Fresh frozen plasma transfusion in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2007, 35:1655-1659. Leslie SD, Toy PT. Laboratory hemostatic abnormalities in massively transfused patients given red blood cells and crystalloid. Am J Clin Pathol. 1991;96(6):770-773. Murray DJ, Olson J, Strauss R, Tinker JH. Coagulation changes during packed red cell replacement of major blood loss. Anesthesiology. 1988;69(6):839-845 Murray DJ, Pennell BJ, Weinstein SL, Olson JD.Packed red cells in acute blood loss: dilutional coagulopathy as a cause of surgical bleeding. Anesth Analg. 1995;80(2):336-342. OShaughnessy DF, Atterbury C, Bolton Maggs P, Murphy M, Thomas D, Yates S, Williamson LM, British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Blood Transfusion Task Force: Guidelines for the use of fresh-frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate and cryosupernatant. Br J Haematol 2004, 126:11-28. Spence RK: Clinical use of plasma and plasma fractions. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2006, 19:83-96. Stanworth SJ, Brunskill SJ, Hyde CJ, McClelland DB, Murphy MF: Is fresh frozen plasma clinically effective? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Br J Haematol 2004, 126:139-152 Tieu BH, Holcomb JB, Schreiber MA. Coagulopathy:its pathophysiology and treatment in the injured patient. World J Surg. 2007;31(5):1055-1065 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_frozen_plasma http://www.psbc.org/therapy/ffp.htm http://reference.medscape.com/drug/ffp-octaplas-fresh-frozen-plasma-999499 http://ccforum.com/content/14/1/202

From Conservative Hong Kong to Liberal Arts :: College Admissions Essays

From Conservative Hong Kong to Liberal Arts    A defining moment in my life occurred about two years ago.   I left my high school in Hong Kong and came to the United States to finish my secondary education as an international student in New York. I left my parents, my home, my friends, and my language in order to experience a foreign culture and broaden the scope of my education and view of life.   Whenever I try to think or write about my life-my autobiography-I always settle upon the importance of this move, this shift from Eastern to Western perspective.    Anyone who has crossed the globe to visit or live in a foreign country has without a doubt had some amount of culture shock, and it is both jarring and exhilarating to find yourself changing in such a new environment. My new location has brought about an awareness that I don't think ever would have appeared if I had stayed put in Hong Kong.   Through the contrasts and differences I have observed and felt in my environmental switch, I have become very conscious of and interested in communication and language. Of course, I was interested in communication and language while still in Hong Kong, where I was president of my high school debate club, excelled in my study of Mandarin Chinese, and was the conductor of student singing at assemblies and a member of the competitive band (I think music is a form of communication too). However, it was not until I left my language behind that I became aware of the power and importance of this aspect of life. Upon my arrival in New York, I initially struggled with English, but after one short year, I progressed from the ESL level and joined regular English classes. I gained confidence in my English, especially in my written work. During this time, I also began studying Japanese. In a way, my study here has allowed me to see the huge importance of language in a person's cultural identity and in the strength of a society. By studying Japanese while at the same time progressing in English, I think this helped keep my Eastern perspective, my native Chinese i dentity, in my mind. It seems easy to get lost in the culture of the United States and also in the culture of New York, but my grip on language made it easier to avoid losing myself and my roots. From Conservative Hong Kong to Liberal Arts :: College Admissions Essays From Conservative Hong Kong to Liberal Arts    A defining moment in my life occurred about two years ago.   I left my high school in Hong Kong and came to the United States to finish my secondary education as an international student in New York. I left my parents, my home, my friends, and my language in order to experience a foreign culture and broaden the scope of my education and view of life.   Whenever I try to think or write about my life-my autobiography-I always settle upon the importance of this move, this shift from Eastern to Western perspective.    Anyone who has crossed the globe to visit or live in a foreign country has without a doubt had some amount of culture shock, and it is both jarring and exhilarating to find yourself changing in such a new environment. My new location has brought about an awareness that I don't think ever would have appeared if I had stayed put in Hong Kong.   Through the contrasts and differences I have observed and felt in my environmental switch, I have become very conscious of and interested in communication and language. Of course, I was interested in communication and language while still in Hong Kong, where I was president of my high school debate club, excelled in my study of Mandarin Chinese, and was the conductor of student singing at assemblies and a member of the competitive band (I think music is a form of communication too). However, it was not until I left my language behind that I became aware of the power and importance of this aspect of life. Upon my arrival in New York, I initially struggled with English, but after one short year, I progressed from the ESL level and joined regular English classes. I gained confidence in my English, especially in my written work. During this time, I also began studying Japanese. In a way, my study here has allowed me to see the huge importance of language in a person's cultural identity and in the strength of a society. By studying Japanese while at the same time progressing in English, I think this helped keep my Eastern perspective, my native Chinese i dentity, in my mind. It seems easy to get lost in the culture of the United States and also in the culture of New York, but my grip on language made it easier to avoid losing myself and my roots.

Sikh struggles in India and U.S. Essay -- Culture Cultural Papers

Sikh struggles in India and U.S. John from the Sikh religion kills Peter, a government official. David, another government official, kills Paul for being a Sikh. John is convicted but David is not. What about when an Indian comes to the U.S.? Indians have changed their cultural traditions so that their family can be accepted and their kids are not made fun of for being "different." These fictional names and situation has occurred to the Sikh religion. It has gone through political issues in India and cultural problems in the U.S. Sikhism, a religion that originated in India, and especially in the state of Punjab which currently is 60% Sikhs and 36% Hindus. Two centuries have past and Sikhism has become the third major religion of India according to Edward A. Gargan in "Though Sikh Rebellion Is Quelled, India's Punjab State Still Seethes" (A8). According to Sikh Missionary Center in Sikh Religion, Guru Nanak founded the Sikh religion, which consists of ten Gurus (1469-1708). The last one proclaimed the Guru Granth Sahib is the Holy Scripture. The Sikh Missionary Center also describes the characteristics of this religion as the rebirth to a less important position is a punishment, to live is a blessing and salvation is achieved by meditating on Nam" (5). Guru Nanak or Baba Nanak can be considered the Jesus of the Sikh religion. According to Donald Lopez S. Jr. in Religious of India in Practice, Nanak was born in Punjab in 1469 and died in 1538 or 1539 (449). He was raised Hindu in a Muslim area of India and believed in a religion from within, not like Hindus and Muslim that believe in liberation: renouncing external features of the religion (Lopez 449). One tale about Nanak involves a time when he encountered some peopl... ... Edward A. "Though Sikh Rebellion Is Quelled, India’s Punjab State Still Seethes." New York Times 26 Oct. 1993: A1, A8. Goodstein, Laurie. "At camps, young U.S. Sikhs cling to heritage." New York Times 18 Jul. 1998: A1, A7. Juergensmeyer, Mark and Barrier. G. Sikh Studies. Berkeley: Graduate Theological Union, 1979. Lopez, Donald S. Jr.. Religions of India in Practice. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1995. Mansukhani, Late S. Gobind Singh. "Introduction to Sikhism." New Delhi: Hemkunt, 1977. Online. (12 Mar. 2000). <http://photon.bu.edu/~rajwi/sikhism/mansukh7.html#q125>. Perez-Pena, Richard. "Sink Temple Helps To Bind A Community In Mourning." New York Times 27 Nov. 1994: 53. Sikh Missionary Center. Sikh Religion. Arbor: Braum-Brumfield, 1990. Singh, Teja. Sikhism Its Ideals and Institutions. Bomby Calcutta Madias New Delhi :Orient Longmans, 1951.

The Impact of Divorce on Children :: Sociology Psychology

Regardless of age, race, sex or religion, divorce has devastating, often long-term, consequences. The immediate effects of divorce, such as hurt, anger and confusion, are evident in both children and adults. The longer-term effects are not so easy to pin point. Adults are usually able to articulate their emotions and verbalize their distress, anger, pain and confusion to help themselves through this period of transition in their lives. As well, adults have the means and ability to seek outside professional assistance independently. Children on the other hand, are not as likely to have the ability to identify the source or kind of turmoil they are experiencing. Therefore, it is difficult for us, as adults, to be fully aware of the consequences of divorce on our children. It is estimated that nearly one half of children born today will spend time in a single parent household watching mommy go down on her boyfriends. Although some of these children are born into single parent families, many more are the product of divorce, and are made to endure the conflict and emotional upset that divorce brings about. At this time, when children require stability and emotional support, the pressures of growing up are often compounded by the stress of divorce and family breakdown. When divorce involves children many questions must be answered. Questions such as: With whom will the children live? How often will the non-custodial parent have access, and under what circumstances? Although simple to ask, these questions are never easy to answer, and children frequently become pawns in a game of revenge. Today, mothers make up the majority of parents who are awarded custody, with fathers making up only 13%. However, this was not always the case. Prior to the 19th century, fathers, under English common law followed in North America , received automatic custody of their children when the marriage dissolved. During the 19th century gradual change occurred. Mothers were first given custody of young children and eventually of older children as well. Today, the trend is changing again, with many couples opting for, or courts ordering, joint custody. Several studies have been done to decipher which custody situation provides the most security and stability for children of divorced families, but it remains that each situation is unique and the individuality of the child(ren) must be the top consideration in making these arrangements. The decision for a couple to divorce is, at best, an emotionally difficult and exhausting time. The Impact of Divorce on Children :: Sociology Psychology Regardless of age, race, sex or religion, divorce has devastating, often long-term, consequences. The immediate effects of divorce, such as hurt, anger and confusion, are evident in both children and adults. The longer-term effects are not so easy to pin point. Adults are usually able to articulate their emotions and verbalize their distress, anger, pain and confusion to help themselves through this period of transition in their lives. As well, adults have the means and ability to seek outside professional assistance independently. Children on the other hand, are not as likely to have the ability to identify the source or kind of turmoil they are experiencing. Therefore, it is difficult for us, as adults, to be fully aware of the consequences of divorce on our children. It is estimated that nearly one half of children born today will spend time in a single parent household watching mommy go down on her boyfriends. Although some of these children are born into single parent families, many more are the product of divorce, and are made to endure the conflict and emotional upset that divorce brings about. At this time, when children require stability and emotional support, the pressures of growing up are often compounded by the stress of divorce and family breakdown. When divorce involves children many questions must be answered. Questions such as: With whom will the children live? How often will the non-custodial parent have access, and under what circumstances? Although simple to ask, these questions are never easy to answer, and children frequently become pawns in a game of revenge. Today, mothers make up the majority of parents who are awarded custody, with fathers making up only 13%. However, this was not always the case. Prior to the 19th century, fathers, under English common law followed in North America , received automatic custody of their children when the marriage dissolved. During the 19th century gradual change occurred. Mothers were first given custody of young children and eventually of older children as well. Today, the trend is changing again, with many couples opting for, or courts ordering, joint custody. Several studies have been done to decipher which custody situation provides the most security and stability for children of divorced families, but it remains that each situation is unique and the individuality of the child(ren) must be the top consideration in making these arrangements. The decision for a couple to divorce is, at best, an emotionally difficult and exhausting time.

A Student Survival Guide Education Essay

This Student Survival Guide is a resource that will be utile to me as an Axia College pupil. The Guide will assist me form and optimise my college experience. The lone manner I can accomplish my dreams is to follow the clip line and pull off my clip sagely. I need to put action programs, utilize time-lines and compare them to what I accomplish in a twenty-four hours. This will convey consciousness and assist me unbend my hebdomad countries. To-Do lists along with short and long-run ends are the best manner to carry through what I set out for ; draw a bead oning to finish the dream of a grade. The best manner I found to maturate as pupil is by developing my reading comprehension and breaking my apprehension of the stuff in the long-run. Using my ain personality in-to my survey wonts will assist me better my reading velocity and comprehension of the stuff ; this will do it easier to recognize educational achievements. This survival usher is a resource that is valuable to me. It will as sist me to form and optimise my college experience. This Guide is a resource that is a functional tool. This resource is accessible and gives practical attacks excessively jobs and the resources available to Axia college pupils along with resources from the web. I need to retrieve refering my surveies, personality counts. The manner I express myself is through my personal surveies and composing manner, this is my personality and learning manner. â€Å" It is no inquiry that everyone learns otherwise. Did you know that your personality can reflect the manner you learn? Knowing your personality and natural inclinations in idiosyncrasies and the absorbing of information can impact your success in college † quotation mark from ( â€Å" Personality & A ; larning manners. † ) Knowing my strengths will assist me along the route to my educational success. When I am cognizant of the strengths of the other pupils, even in the concern universe can assist organize a good squad with a balanced mix of intelligences for the undertaking at manus. I need continually to better these accomplishments, pattern to do betterments. Knowing that I am best at Intrapersonal accomplishments, I can utilize this to my advantage as an on-line pupil and expli cate action programs that accommodate my strengths and better my weaker countries of intelligences ; this information combined with the resource found and the universities website do my dreams possible. University of Phoenix offers many tools to me as a pupil. Get downing out in needed to cognize where the information was and how to entree it. I now know how to download and form all my school files and program to take all the PDF chapter files from my categories and set them on the Kindle I received for my birthday today. Traveling my papers to a portable reader will do it easier for to analyze my chapters anyplace. I think the most of import thing to make is do usage of the resources and workshops available for my advantage. The University ‘s library offers legion resources to pupils. Write-point and plagiarism-checker, for illustration, these two tools are in the Center for Writing Excellence along with workshops, they help me fix written assignments by giving advice and reviews on ways to better my paper. Plagiarism-checker gives me a similarity index, comparing my work excessively other articles and documents for similarities. Important note to self, these two resources ar e of import I need to utilize them to subject the best work I can. I have enrolled in a workshop â€Å" Time and Stress Management. † this is an country I need betterment believe I will profit from this workshop. I have read and understand the Axia ‘s academic honestness policy and take the information really earnestly. I need to follow the regulations to be successful as a pupil. Some information sing plagiarism can be found in the university ‘s library. I will adhere to the guidelines at all clip to guarantee my success. One illustration of plagiarism: â€Å" Paraphrasing statements, paragraphs, or other organic structures of work without proper commendation utilizing person else ‘s thoughts, informations, linguistic communication, and/or statements without recognition. † ( â€Å" Students ‘ rights and duties, † ) . The best manner to avoid plagiarism wholly is create original work. Do n't copy person else ‘s work. I can make something original and if I find information or resources I find peculiarly helpful or enlightening, I will mention the information right and to the best of my ability in APA format. Part of making the best work I can, I need to continually endeavor to develope my reading comprehension and retaining that information for longer periods of times with pattern. The University of Phoenix gives me all the tools I need to be a booming pupil. The SQ3R Method is a good method to better your reading and keeping rate. I need to work on this method. I know how to utilize it ; sometimes I merely fail to utilize it wholly. I have a alone method for analyzing. I study text-books is wholly different from the manner I would travel about reading a novel. I mark up the text, reappraisal words in bold and so seek to happen cardinal information. I make maps of the general construct and so organize back uping and of import information around the cardinal thought when I analyzing college text editions, particularly when fixing to compose an essay. This is the best method and I need to utilize this individualized method and better upon it. The brainstorming session allows me to prioritise the content and visualise the contextual flow of the essay. The best manner to better reading ability is to merely pattern. I do n't hold pattern brand perfect, it merely mak es me better. Reading all the stuff presented by the teacher will assist me better me reading ability and assist me maintain gait with the lessons. The best manner to make this is to put ends. Short and long-run ends are what I am progressively trusting on. The short-run ends assist me pave the manner to carry throughing bigger things. I need to his tool for personal success. I found a utile resource for pull offing personal action programs, the templet found at the following web reference, â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //www.healthkey.com/hive/healthwise/media/pdf/hw/form_zx3175.pdf † this web PDF papers can function as a templet I can utilize to pattern and better my end scene and clip direction accomplishments. I besides like the resources found at www.mindtools.com. This reputable resource along with the college ‘s resources can assist me through my educational experience in many ways, the chief focal point being on ends, clip direction, and life programs. Pull offing clip sagely is an of import accomplishment. I can equilibrate my instruction with my personal life by keeping end lists and puting timelines. Keeping path of my accomplishments gives me motive as I complete more of the challenges and acquire closer to my ends. Thingss will come approximately and decelerate me down. When I find myself overwhelmed I can sit a listen to new age piano music for a few proceedingss and clear my head. This will assist me concentrate and avoid cachexia clip. Lodging to the agenda is the most of import facet of pull offing my clip sagely. I am including several on-line resources that I believe will assist me better my accomplishments and finally impel me toward my grade.

Being Unemployed and the Impact of Unemployment

In this modern day, that which defines the person’s private life including his lifestyle is his personal accomplishments with regards to his work or job. He fails to see the significance of other people within the community in his achievements. Now, this paper would try to see how community and the society affect the character and attitude of the people who are unemployed.The first part of the paper would discuss the very concept of unemployment and the underlying factors that cause unemployment. The second part would present the effects of unemployment to the individuals and to the society/community.The last part would include an analysis of the problem of unemployment and conclusion First Part: What is Unemployment? Unemployment pertains to a condition wherein a willing person lacks opportunity to obtain any job or work. (Sinfield) Such lacking of opportunity can be either caused by the person himself or by the different factors that affect the community (i. e. economics, po litics, etc. ) The unemployed person could really find difficulty in finding job when he himself lacks certain requirements. For example, an aspirant wants to work with a particular company. However, he did not pass the qualifications and standard of that company (e.g. educational attainment, background check-up). Hence he loses the chance of acquiring a job mainly because the problem is he himself. No matter how willing a person is if he would not pass the standard or qualification of a company, it is most likely that he would not get a job. On the other hands, there are factor that affect unemployment. First is the economic element. The companies are closing their doors to applicants because the economy is very low such that hiring them would endanger the standing of the companies (perhaps the companies think that they cannot afford to pay the wages of these applicants if ever they hire them).Second is political element. The political instability may cause economic stability. Thus the result would be the refusal of the companies to hire new workers. (Walters) Lastly, environmental element can also be a factor in the problem of unemployment. The people may find difficulty in looking for jobs when they are situated in a place wherein companies would most likely refuse to establish themselves. These are just some of the factors that can really affect the problem of unemployment. Second Part: What are the Effects of Unemployment?Effects of unemployment can be directly manifested in the people’s lifestyle and character. (Sinfield) People who are unemployed usually live in places that are far from industrialized regions (i. e. rural areas, slum areas). They find so much difficulty in meeting their everyday needs such as food, clothing, shelter and others. Some cannot even afford to eat three times a day. The way they dress up can really show how unfortunate themselves being unemployed. Unemployed people may express their disappointment and depression by the way they behave toward other people.Unemployed people may become forceful or unwilling to socialize with other people. These people are usually the ones who boldly declare dissent towards the government and its programs and policies. (Moller) Third Part: Analysis and Conclusion on the Impact of Unemployment As an analysis, the problem of unemployment is really dependent on the key factor or elements that govern the structure and function of society. They significantly affect the lives of the unemployed (and even the employed) people.Nevertheless, if these key elements would be in good condition, the unemployment rate could be resolved granted that there are great efforts that would be put in its actualization. The effects of unemployment show how people react and behave toward other people. Moreover, unemployment may also define how people should live and think. (Moller) As a conclusion, unemployment is really a defining mark of the standard of living (or of how people live). More often, jobless people pursue to obtain work unfortunately due to the cited key elements that govern the society, having jobs is not really easy for them.And manifestations of the effects of unemployment could be illustrated by how unemployed people interact with the community or society. References: Moller, Valerie. The unemployment blues: Psychological effects of unemployment on the individual. Centre for Social and Development Studies, University of Natal, 1992. Sinfield, Adrian. What Unemployment Means. Blackwell Publishers, 1981. Walters, William. Unemployment and Government: Genealogies of the Social . Campbridge University Press, 2000.

Public Addressing System

Table of Contents Acknowledgment†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Abstract†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ * Background of the Study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ * Statement of the Problem†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ * Objective of the Study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ * Scope and Limitations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. * Significance of the Study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ * Conceptual Framework†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ * Schematic Diagrams†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ * Parts List†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Glossary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Appendices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Recommendations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ AcknowledgmentThe proponents would like to express their sincerest and deepest gratitude to the following for their contribution and involvement in the project: to God Al mighty, for His unfathomable grace and overwhelming blessings, to their parents, for providing the place to stay throughout the project. If it weren’t for their financial, emotional, mental, and spiritual support, the proponents wouldn’t have completed the project, to the librarians of the Don Honorio Ventura Technological State University for their assistance, to their supportive Electronics Engineering Department Instructor, Engr.May Layson for giving them the opportunity to fulfill this project and lastly, to their friends, classmates, colleagues and everyone who were not mentioned who also, even in their small ways, helped in the improvement and fulfillment of the project, and supported the proponents until the end. They are forever in debt to everyone for their undying support, for without them, this project wouldn’t be completed. Abstract There had been a number of projects that focuses on the important aspects of a Public Addressing System.This study was then conducted in order to understand and appreciate the working principles of PA systems from their construction, functions and daily applications. Specifically, this research aimed to identify the role and reliability of PA Systems as a tool for communications. The design of the device was based on the perspectives of the instructors on how the system will satisfy the needs of the institution. The advantages and disadvantages of using the tool were also discussed. Weighted means were computed to analyze the significance of the project.The results showed that the project is capable of being an optional sound reinforcement system since it can do mixing and amplifying signals of different inputs. This in turn benefits the student’s society as it enables them to have means of addressing with one another through a sound amplification system. This also helps in reducing the constraints of having a poor sense of communication in a limited range. Nonetheless, the students involved also agree that the accuracy of the data obtained from the test results are quite difficult to ensure considering that the knowledge about the device is limited.Future researchers could easily take enhancements recommended for the betterment of the project. Moreover, legal consultation had been correlated to this tool. As stated from literatures, these finding clearly emphasizes the need for some additional resources from the previous studies and advices from instructors to ensure the reliability and validity of the results obtained. Items that point out to lack of available components must be taken out. Furthermore, outcomes of project enhancement and appraisal can be more successful by combining the concepts and ideas made based from the prototype versions.Introduction Communication plays an important role in the development of a nation. It is an integral part of development. Societies cannot change and develop without communication, as it is a process of social interaction throug h which people are influenced by ideas, attitudes, knowledge and behavior of each other. Nowadays, communication has attained a great importance in the developmental programs. It is through the process of communication that people are made aware of the nature and objectives of the programs.The useful developmental messages are conveyed to the target groups through various communication approaches. This helps people in acquiring new knowledge required for coping with fast changing society and in adoption of innovations for the improvement of their practices, methods and quality of life. Through the advancement of technology, electronics paved way for the development of communication systems. One of the innovations brought about these technologies is the Public Addressing System.A Public Addressing System or simply PA System is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system. It is anything that amplifies sound so more people can hear it. Most basic systems these days includ e several different parts such as one or more microphones, one or more speakers, a mixer that allows the user to control the volume, tone and balance of different voices or instruments, an amplifier (built into the mixer, built into the speakers, or purchased separately) and stands to hold the speakers and microphones at appropriate height and angles.From this documentation, the researchers were able to explore and delve deeper about the concepts on how a PA System work and how does it contribute to development in the field of communication systems. Background of the Study A Public Address (PA) system is a collection of audio equipment that allows broadcasts over a designated area. Often found in schools and office buildings, PA systems can be used for general announcements or emergency information, providing a simple way to get information out quickly. PA systems can be basic or advanced, and people can customize them to fit a variety of needs.There are even personal models that ca n be less expensive, but allow for a much shorter range. The term is also used for systems which may additionally have a mixing console, amplifiers, and loudspeakers suitable for music as well as speech, used to reinforce a sound source, e. g. , recorded music or a person giving a speech, and distributing the sound throughout a venue or building. Sound reinforcement systems and PA systems may use some similar components, but with differing application, although the distinction between the two is not clear-cut.Sound reinforcement systems are for live music or performance, whereas PA systems are primarily for reproduction of speech. The presence of the light weight components included in the circuit makes it easier to carry, and therefore, making it handy. Recently from the previous projects, we have used several components to amplify signals. Some of which are the bipolar junction transistor, field-effect transistor and metal-oxide semiconductor transistor, now we will use one of the best amplifying device, the IC OP-AMP. 41 OP-AMP is a versatile IC that can be used as a differential amplifier. From this, the researchers must be able to conceptualize and build effective Portable Public Addressing System using operational amplifiers and other electronic components as the center of the study. Statement of the Problem What is the purpose of a Public Addressing System? The purpose of a portable PA system is to provide an accessible way of addressing in a crowd. This is very useful when communications are to be made in a limited broadcasting range. Objective of the StudyTo be able to conceptualize and build an effective public addressing system using IC-Operational Amplifiers and other electronic components and understand and appreciate its principles of operation as well as its primary function and applications. Scope and Limitations While a simple and portable PA system is often fairly expensive, it can provide a speaker with some options for addressing a crowd of people. This type of public announcement hardware provides someone with extremely limited broadcasting range, often including only a single speaker, but still serves to amplify the user's voice.All PA systems are also delimited since they have a potential for audio feedback, which occurs when sound from the speakers returns to the microphone and is then re-amplified and sent through the speakers again. Another thing is, more advanced versions increase in price considerably, especially with numerous cords, wireless hubs, and adaptors that may be required. This all depends, however, on what a person or business needs in terms of PA system hardware and installation. Significance of the StudyThe project is intended to enrich and upgrade the knowledge of the proponents about the different uses of IC Operational Amplifiers by constructing a simple portable Public Addressing System. This study will be a significant endeavor in promoting the construction of useful devices with the advancem ents of electronics. It will also be beneficial to the students and instructors in some applications employing conduction of gatherings, meetings, seminars and workshops for effective learning in their classroom setting particularly in different concepts related to electronics.By understanding the needs of the students and benefits of quality education, these instructors and students are assured of a competitive advantage. Moreover, this project will provide recommendations on how to evaluate the performance of the researchers involved in accordance to the outcome of the study. Conceptual Framework A Public Address System is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system with an audio input, amplifier and an audio output. The Portable Public-Addressing System (PA systems) is capable of amplifying different input signals like microphone, audio, and guitar signals simultaneously.Microphones The transmission can begin with a microphone, which is a device that can assist in m agnifying an audio source's volume. A microphone is classified as a device that transforms sound into an electrical signal. Microphones used in PA systems are usually dynamic or condensers. Dynamic microphones are more rugged than condensers and are able to withstand the elements a little better. Condenser microphones utilize their own power source and produce better-quality audio signals, but can sometimes be so sensitive that they also receive background noises.Mixers If a microphone or another audio source is used in a PA system, it is plugged into a mixer. The mixer allows for multiple channels of sound to be broadcast at different levels. This can help prevent feedback if a PA system will involve multiple microphones, instruments, or other audio sources. For example, someone may use a PA system to sing along with a pre-recorded CD. The CD track could be plugged into one channel, while the singer's voice would be broadcast through another. Amplifier The amplifier is usually side by side or incorporated with the mixer.The amplifier's job is to magnify the audio signal by manipulating its varying frequency qualities. Gain in an amplifier refers to the decibel level of the sound coming out of the speakers. Another quality, Output Dynamic Range, refers to the loud and soft levels of a specific channel's sound. Too low of an output could result in just broadcasting noise; too high of an output can lead to distortion. Loudspeakers The loudspeaker is the output end of the PA system, transforming the electrical signal back into sound that a group can hear.A good loudspeaker system will separate the differing sound frequencies and broadcast them through different sound channels for better quality output. Parts of a loudspeaker system include a woofer, which broadcasts low frequency sounds; and tweeters, the drivers of high frequency output. Some speakers also contain crossover systems that are responsible for separating these frequencies, reducing the electrical no ise that can sometimes accompany a PA system broadcast. Discussions The design of the system internally contains three major stages. These stages are connected to each other to attain the circuit of a Portable Public Address System.The first stage is the power supply of the circuit; has a center-tapped transformer with the primary set to 220Vac and secondary of 12-0-12Vac. This transformer is connected to diodes and capacitor which is responsible for filtering and to produce a full-wave output. This output will become a DC voltage which will serve as +VCC for the next stage. The second stage is for the Pre-amplifiers. There are three Pre-amplifiers which contain two inputs for the microphone and one for the guitar. The Pre-amplifiers in the project use an IC which is generally considered as one the most versatile component there is.The purpose of the IC is to amplify the input sound signals to produce a sound suitable for speakers. Normally in the pre-amp, the output of the sound is not quite satisfying. An increase in the volume of the sound will be attained when it is connected into another stage which is the Power-Amplifier stage. This is the last stage of the circuit. The Power-Amplifier is one that drives the input sound coming from the pre-amplifier to produce an output through speakers. The Power-Amplifier uses an IC also. The loudness of the sound is produced by the Power-Amplifier. Schematic Diagrams * Audio * Guitar Microphone * Microphone Power Amplifier * Power Supply Parts list Label| Quantity| Description| R1, R2, R3| 3| 1K 1/4W Resistor| R4, R5, R6| 3| 10K Logarithmic Pot| R7| 1| 1Meg 1/4W Resistor| R8, R10| 2| 10K 1/4W Resistor| R9, R11| 2| 100K Linear Pot| C1, C2, C5, C6| 1| 0. 1uF Ceramic Disc Capacitor| C3, C4| 2| 22nF Ceramic Disc Capacitor| U1, U2| 2| 741 Op Amp| J1, J2, J3| 3| Input Jacks| MISC| 1| Board, Wire, Knobs, IC Sockets| Conclusion A Portable Public Address System is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system with a microphone, amplifier and loudspeakers used to allow a person to address a large public for example for announcements of ovements at large and noisy air and terminals. The PA system contains a mixing console where the amplifiers and loudspeakers are suitable for music and as well as speech used to reinforce a sound source and distributing the sound throughout a venue or building. It is often used in small areas such as school auditoriums, churches, small bars or other places. The significance of being portable is by means of you can carry it anywhere because it is lighter and useful for emergency or immediate announcements.It also contains two systems combine in one module. The two systems may use some similar components but with different application. It has a sound reinforcement system which is the guitar input use for music performance and a PA system which is the microphone input use for speech purposes. Glossary A Amplify – to  make  larger,  greater,  or  st ronger;  enlarge;  extend. Audio – pertains to employed  in  the  transmission,  reception,  reproduction  of  sound. B Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) – has three terminals connected to three doped semiconductor regions.Board – piece  of  wood  sawed  thin,  and  of  considerable  length  andbreadth  compared  with  the  thickness. C Condenser-lens  or  combination  of  lenses  that  gathers  andconcentrates  light  in  a  specified  direction,  often  used  to direct  light  onto  the  projection  lens  in  a  projection  system. Constraints – limitation  or  restriction. Circuit – the  complete  path  of  anelectric  current,  including  the  generating  apparatus, intervening  resistors,  or  capacitors. Capacitor – is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field.Console â€⠀œ a physical device to operate a computer. D differential amplifier  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two voltages but does not amplify the particular voltages. F field-effect transistor  (FET) is a  transistor  that uses an  electric field  to control the shape and hence the  conductivity  of a  channel  of one type of  charge carrier  in a  semiconductor  material feedback – occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input (for example, a  microphone  or  guitar pickup) and an audio output (for example, a  loudspeaker).H hub  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ makes the networking of multiple computers in the home or office easier. I Integrated circuit (IC) – the patterned diffusion of trace  elements  into the surface of a thin  substrate  of  semiconductor  material. Input  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ term  denoting  either an entrance or changes which are inserted into a  system  and which activate /modify a  process. J Jack – is a small, round electrical connector found on audio and video products that is used to interconnect components. Junction – point where at least three circuit paths meet. KKnob – a small rounded ornament or handle. M MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor – special type of field-effect transistor (  FET  ) that works by electronically varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers (  electron  s or  hole  s) flow. Microphone – an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. N Noise  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ unwanted sound. O Operational-Amplifiers – widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.Output – term denoting either an exit or changes which exit a system and which activate/modify a process. P Portable – denotes something that is handy. Plug – a male fitting for making an electrical connection to a live circuit by insertion in a receptacle (as an outlet). Pre-amplifier (pre-amp) – an electronic amplifier that prepares a small electrical signal for further amplification or processing Potentiometer – commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. RResistor – is part of an electrical circuit that resists the flow of current. Reinforcement – is when a behavior is increased or maintained by its consequences. Rugged – having a rough uneven surface. S Signal – a detectable physical quantity or impulse (as a voltage, current, or magnetic field strength) by which messages or information can be transmitted. Speaker – an output device used specially for audio signals. T Transistor – a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power.Terminal – a position in a  circuit  or device at which a connection can be made or broken. References Articles * Basic P. A. Systems: A Primer For Using P. A. Systems by Yorkville Sound Books * Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky * Electronic Principles by Albert Paul Malvino * Teach Yourself Electricity and Electronics 5th Edition by Stan Gibilisco Websites * www. yorkville. com * www. wikipedia. com * www. circuitstoday. com * www. ehow. com * www. howstuffworks. com Appendices LM741 Operational Amplifier General DescriptionThe LM741 series are general purpose operational amplifiers which feature improved performance over industry standards like the LM709. They are direct, plug-in replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in most applications. The amplifiers offer many features which make their application nearly foolproof: overload protection on the input and output, no latch-up when the common mode range is exceeded, as well as freedom from oscillations. The LM741C is identical to t he LM741/LM741A except that the LM741C has their performance guaranteed over a 0 °C to +70 °C temperature range, instead of ? 5 °C to +125 °C. Connection Diagram Recommendations All PA systems have a potential for audio feedback, which occurs when sound from the speakers returns to the microphone and is then re-amplified and sent through the speakers again. Sound engineers take several steps to maximize gain before feedback. If you are setting up a sound system and want to avoid feedback, there are a few general measures that can help avoid such problem: * Keep a certain distance between the position of the microphone and the speakers. * Use a unidirectional microphone. If you have access to an equalizer, dampen the frequencies where feedback is occurring. * Ensure that both microphone and speakers are in good performance state. * Never place a mobile phone near the speakers or even at the microphone. Since the Power-Amplifier is responsible for the driving of the input soun d (coming from the pre-amplifier), it is necessary to have an efficient circuit of a power amplifier with a sufficient wattage needed to obtain a desired output. The greater the wattage value of a power amplifier circuit, the better the output sound.